Collection

Revolutionary Words

The words of the American Revolution are very much alive today. When Americans consider the nation’s founding, our discussion rarely revolves around battles, but turns instead to pamphlets, propaganda, and protest; the lofty phrases that inspired the masses, and the detailed arguments used to justify independence. For generations, we’ve memorized the Founders’ famous quotations in school, recited them in our civic commemorations, and invoked them regularly in our political discourse. We pick apart the nation’s founding documents to try to understand what the Founders intended them to mean at the time, and contemplate what they mean for our law, public policy, and social identity today. At the same time, some of the phrases we attribute to the Founders may not have ever been written or uttered by them. This collection of contemporary writings about quotations and catch-phrases from the revolutionary lexicon prompts us to take another read.
Layered collage of an eye over the portrait of Thomas Jefferson, against the backdrop of the Declaration of Independence.

Who Really Wrote ‘the Pursuit of Happiness’?

The voice of Doctor Johnson, archcritic of the American Revolution, was constantly in mind for the Declaration of Independence’s drafter.
Did Jefferson include the word "pursuit" because he did not think happiness was a right? Did the pursuit mean the practice of happiness? Or something else entirely? Peter Moore seeks clarity by from the writers that Jefferson was reading.
Patrick Henry

Did Patrick Henry Really Say ‘Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death’?

The Virginia delegate may have spoken those words on March 23, 1775, but some historians doubt it.
Patrick Henry did not write down his speech, and his words were not reported at the time. Could the famous quotation be apocryphal, and how did we come to credit Henry with that phrase?
Illustration of Founders signing the Declaration of Independence.

How the Meaning of the Declaration of Independence Changed Over Time

When Thomas Jefferson penned ‘all men are created equal,’ he did not mean individual equality, says Stanford scholar.
Historian Jack Rakove discusses Jefferson's understanding of the now-famous phrase "all men are created equal," and a phrase cut from a draft of the Declaration of Independence denouncing the system of slavery as a "cruel war against human nature."
Engraving of Founding Fathers reading the Declaration of Independence while onlookers rally.

Does America Have a Founding Philosophy?

It depends on how you read the Declaration’s “self-evident” truths.
A political theorist breaks down the phrase "We hold these truths to be self-evident," to ask: Are they true? Are they "fundamentally ours?" If we believe they are, then how should we act on them? And what do they even mean in the first place?
Abraham Lincoln speaking to a crowd.

Stop Making Sense

Are the truths in the Declaration of Independence really self-evident?
William Hogeland doesn't "think the Continental Congress that issued the Declaration of Independence brought forth, on this continent, a new nation, let alone a nation dedicated to a proposition, let alone the proposition that all men are created equal." Or at least they did not intend to. He makes the case that the Founders "didn’t have the ideals we wish they had," and that such a nation finally came about through Abraham Lincoln's interpretation of the Declaration.
Lithograph of James Madison from Portrait and Biographical Album of Washtenaw County, Michigan, 1891, Wikimedia.

The Founders’ Muddled Legacy on the Right to Bear Arms Is Killing Us

A case of 18th-century politicking has stymied our ability to deal with a 21st-century crisis.
"On the right to bear arms, the founders did not say what they meant, and did not mean what they said," William Hogeland argues. Madison wrote the Second Amendment with a deliberately weak and unclear sentence for the sake of the politics of the moment, to pacify his allies and deceive his opponents so everyone thought they won. We are still living with the consequences of his word choice today.
Tweet by Josh Hawley of a quotation he falsely attributes to Patrick Henry.

Senator Josh Hawley Tweeted a Christian Nationalist Quote Falsely Attributed to Patrick Henry

It was actually from a 1950s antisemitic and white supremacist magazine. Who cares?
A quotation purported to be Patrick Henry's declaration of the Founders' intent to establish a Christian nation actually originated in an antisemitic magazine in the 1950s. What does it mean to those who continue to circulate it, and why does it matter?
Portrait of Samuel Adams with sunglasses photoshopped onto his face.

How Samuel Adams Fought for Independence—Anonymously

Pseudonyms allowed Adams to audition ideas and venture out on limbs without fear of reprisal.
Using a raft of pseudonyms from Cato to Vindex to pen editorials in half a dozen newspapers—sometimes even replying to himself—Adams perfected his arguments for independence and popularized words like "inalienable," "unconstitutional," and "patriot" into American public discourse.

The Sentimentalizing of Federalist Ten

Ideas about history still prevailing in the liberal resistance to Trump keep pushing us backward.
William Hogeland counters historians' and politicians' misinterpretations of James Madison's famous essay. The key to understanding it is to think about exactly what "majority" and "minority" meant to Madison's target audience — wealthy New Yorkers skeptical of the proposed constitution.
Graphic of a nickel displays the words "nullification," "compact," and "sever" on Jefferson's head.

Thomas Jefferson Would Like A Word With You

Thomas Jefferson's limited government ideal quickly conflicted with the U.S. Constitution and the dominant Federalist Party, prompting a radical proposal.
Michael Liss notes that we study and revere the Founders' words yet we often don't take them seriously or don't think about their actual meanings. He explores some of the words Jefferson popularized in public discourse of the early republic, including "nullify," "compact," and "sever ourselves."
John Trumbull’s painting of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, 1819.

Who Invented the “Founding Fathers?”

The making of a myth.
The etymology of the phrase, and the history of the language used to mythologize the men who hammered out a government for the new United States, from the 1820s onward.